The French Revolution 1789
This was an assertion against the Ancien Regime, where birth rights distinguished citizens; peasants had no opportunity to improve their social strata due to the high poverty and oppression. Possibly the most liberating clause out of the declaration, was the concept of popular sovereignty. It was considered that absolute power should no longer reside in the hands of the Monarch. Instead, sovereignty would rest with the nation, giving the citizens the opportunity to exercise their power. There are some clauses that centre wholly on the enlightenment movement. To liberate a nation required certain minimal restrictions. In 1762 Rousseau had published the Social Contract. Within it Rousseau outlined that, 'human beings agree to an implicit Social Contract which gave them certain rights, in return for giving up certain freedoms' (J.Hunt (1998) Pg7). This inferred that people have the right to life, in return for giving up the freedom to kill others. Release also arrived for religion. People were free to follow their chosen beliefs, signalling the end of exclusive Catholicism. Deism was being introduced. In particular, Voltaire believed that although the 'universe was created by God; it was then left to operate accordingly to scientific law' (Merriman (1996) Pg407). This then paved the way for a variety of other
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
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Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen de 1789
[Declaration of the Rights of man and of the Citizen (August 1789] by Jean-Jacques François Le Barbier (1738-1826) [See larger image 4268 px [JPG 2.1 MB]] |
Source of the Image
Artist: Jean-Jacques François Le Barbier (1738-1826)
Source: French Wikipedia <http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Déclaration_des_droits_de_l'homme_et_du_citoyen_de_1789>
Some Observations about Le Barbier's Illustration
A stone plynth is engraved with 'The Declaration of the Rights of Man andof the Citizen, decreed by the National Assembly during the sesssions of August20, 21, 23, 24, and 26 1789. Accepted by the King. To the Representatives ofthe French People' Seated at the top left of the plynth is the figure of Mariannewearing a phrygian cap and holding the broken chains of tyranny in her hands.On the top right of the plynth is an angel who is pointing with her left handto the articles of the Declaration and with her right hand which is holdinga sceptre to the masonic eye at the top of the poster, whose beams of enlightenmentare flooding the plynth.
The Original French version of theDeclaration
[Source: <http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/conseil-constitutionnel/francais/la-constitution/la-constitution-du-4-octobre-1958/declaration-des-droits-de-l-homme-et-du-citoyen-de-1789.5076.html>]
Les Représentants du Peuple Français, constitués en Assemblée Nationale, considérantque l'ignorance, l'oubli ou le mépris des droits de l'Homme sont les seulescauses des malheurs publics et de la corruption des Gouvernements, ont résolud'exposer, dans une Déclaration solennelle, les droits naturels, inaliénableset sacrés de l'Homme, afin que cette Déclaration, constamment présente à tousles Membres du corps social, leur rappelle sans cesse leurs droits et leursdevoirs ; afin que les actes du pouvoir législatif, et ceux du pouvoir exécutif,pouvant être à chaque instant comparés avec le but de toute institution politique,en soient plus respectés; afin que les réclamations des citoyens, fondées désormaissur des principes simples et incontestables, tournent toujours au maintiende la Constitution et au bonheur de tous.
En conséquence, l'Assemblée Nationale reconnaît et déclare, en présence etsous les auspices de l'Etre suprême, les droits suivants de l'Homme et du Citoyen.
Art. 1er. Les hommes naissent et demeurent libres et égaux en droits. Lesdistinctions sociales ne peuvent être fondées que sur l'utilité commune.
Art. 2. Le but de toute association politique est la conservation des droitsnaturels et imprescriptibles de l'Homme. Ces droits sont la liberté, la propriété,la sûreté, et la résistance à l'oppression.
Art. 3. Le principe de toute Souveraineté réside essentiellement dans la Nation.Nul corps, nul individu ne peut exercer d'autorité qui n'en émane expressément.
Art. 4. La liberté consiste à pouvoir faire tout ce qui ne nuit pas à autrui: ainsi, l'exercice des droits naturels de chaque homme n'a de bornes que cellesqui assurent aux autres Membres de la Société la jouissance de ces mêmes droits.Ces bornes ne peuvent être déterminées que par la Loi.
Art. 5. La Loi n'a le droit de défendre que les actions nuisibles à la Société.Tout ce qui n'est pas défendu par la Loi ne peut être empêché, et nul ne peutêtre contraint à faire ce qu'elle n'ordonne pas.
Art. 6. La Loi est l'expression de la volonté générale. Tous les Citoyensont droit de concourir personnellement, ou par leurs Représentants, à sa formation.Elle doit être la même pour tous, soit qu'elle protège, soit qu'elle punisse.Tous les Citoyens étant égaux à ses yeux sont également admissibles à toutesdignités, places et emplois publics, selon leur capacité, et sans autre distinctionque celle de leurs vertus et de leurs talents.
Art. 7. Nul homme ne peut être accusé, arrêté ni détenu que dans les cas déterminéspar la Loi, et selon les formes qu'elle a prescrites. Ceux qui sollicitent,expédient, exécutent ou font exécuter des ordres arbitraires, doivent êtrepunis ; mais tout citoyen appelé ou saisi en vertu de la Loi doit obéir à l'instant: il se rend coupable par la résistance.
Art. 8. La Loi ne doit établir que des peines strictement et évidemment nécessaires,et nul ne peut être puni qu'en vertu d'une Loi établie et promulguée antérieurementau délit, et légalement appliquée.
Art. 9. Tout homme étant présumé innocent jusqu'à ce qu'il ait été déclarécoupable, s'il est jugé indispensable de l'arrêter, toute rigueur qui ne seraitpas nécessaire pour s'assurer de sa personne doit être sévèrement répriméepar la loi.
Art. 9. Tout homme étant présumé innocent jusqu'à ce qu'il ait été déclarécoupable, s'il est jugé indispensable de l'arrêter, toute rigueur qui ne seraitpas nécessaire pour s'assurer de sa personne doit être sévèrement répriméepar la loi.
Art. 10. Nul ne doit être inquiété pour ses opinions, même religieuses, pourvuque leur manifestation ne trouble pas l'ordre public établi par la Loi.
Art. 11. La libre communication des pensées et des opinions est un des droitsles plus précieux de l'Homme : tout Citoyen peut donc parler, écrire, imprimerlibrement, sauf à répondre de l'abus de cette liberté dans les cas déterminéspar la Loi.
Art. 12. La garantie des droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen nécessite une forcepublique : cette force est donc instituée pour l'avantage de tous, et non pourl'utilité particulière de ceux auxquels elle est confiée.
Art. 13. Pour l'entretien de la force publique, et pour les dépenses d'administration,une contribution commune est indispensable : elle doit être également répartieentre tous les citoyens, en raison de leurs facultés.
Art. 14. Tous les Citoyens ont le droit de constater, par eux-mêmes ou parleurs représentants, la nécessité de la contribution publique, de la consentirlibrement, d'en suivre l'emploi, et d'en déterminer la quotité, l'assiette,le recouvrement et la durée.
Art. 15. La Société a le droit de demander compte à tout Agent public de sonadministration.
Art. 16. Toute Société dans laquelle la garantie des Droits n'est pas assurée,ni la séparation des Pouvoirs déterminée, n'a point de Constitution.
Art. 17. La propriété étant un droit inviolable et sacré, nul ne peut en êtreprivé, si ce n'est lorsque la nécessité publique, légalement constatée, l'exigeévidemment, et sous la condition d'une juste et préalable indemnité.
An English Translation of the Declaration
[English translation. Source: <http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen>] Crash bandicoot pc download.
The representatives of the French people, constituted into a National Assembly,considering that ignorance, forgetting or contempt of the rights of man arethe sole causes of public misfortunes and of the corruption of governments,are resolved to expose [i.e., expound], in a solemn declaration, the natural,inalienable and sacred rights of man, so that that declaration, constantlypresent to all members of the social body, points out to them without ceasetheir rights and their duties; so that the acts of the legislative power andthose of the executive power, being at every instant able to be compared withthe goal of any political institution, are very respectful of it; so that thecomplaints of the citizens, founded from now on simple and incontestible principles,turn always to the maintenance of the Constitution and to the happiness ofall.
In consequence, the National Assembly recognizes and declares, in the presenceand under the auspices of the Supreme Being, the following rights of man andof the citizen:
Article I - Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctionscan be founded only on the common utility.
Article II - The goal of any political association is the conservation ofthe natural and imprescriptible [i.e., inviolable] rights of man. These rightsare liberty, property, safety and resistance against oppression.
Article III - The principle of any sovereignty resides essentially in theNation. No body, no individual can exert authority which does not emanate expresslyfrom it.
Article IV - Liberty consists of doing anything which does not harm others:thus, the exercise of the natural rights of each man has only those borderswhich assure other members of the society the enjoyment of these same rights.These borders can be determined only by the law.
Article V - The law has the right to ward [i.e., forbid] only actions [whichare] harmful to the society. Any thing which is not warded [i.e., forbidden]by the law cannot be impeded, and no one can be constrained to do what it [i.e.,the law] does not order.
Article VI - The law is the expression of the general will. All the citizenshave the right of contributing personally or through their representativesto its formation. It must be the same for all, either that it protects, orthat it punishes. All the citizens, being equal in its eyes, are equally admissibleto all public dignities, places and employments, according to their capacityand without distinction other than that of their virtues and of their talents.
Article VII - No man can be accused, arrested nor detained but in the casesdetermined by the law, and according to the forms which it has prescribed.Those who solicit, dispatch, carry out or cause to be carried out arbitraryorders, must be punished; but any citizen called [i.e., summoned] or seizedunder the terms of the law must obey at the moment; he renders himself culpableby resistance.
Article VIII - The law should establish only strictly and evidently necessarypenalties, and no one can be punished but under a law established and promulgatedbefore the offense and [which is] legally applied.
Article IX - Any man being presumed innocent until he is declared culpable,if it is judged indispensible to arrest him, any rigor [i.e., action] whichwould not be necessary for the securing of his person must be severely reprimandedby the law.
Article X - No one may be questioned about his opinions, [and the] same [for]religious [opinions], provided that their manifestation does not trouble thepublic order established by the law.
Article XI - The free communication of thoughts and of opinions is one ofthe most precious rights of man: any citizen thus may speak, write, print freely,save [if it is necessary] to respond to the abuse of this liberty, in the casesdetermined by the law.
Article XII - The guarantee of the rights of man and of the citizen necessitatesa public force [i.e., a police force]: this force is thus instituted for theadvantage of all and not for the particular utility of those to whom it isconfided.
Article XIII - For the maintenance of the public force and for the expendituresof administration, a common contribution is indispensable; it must be equallydistributed between all the citizens, by reason of their faculties [i.e., abilityto pay].
Article XIV - Each citizen has the right of noting, by himself or throughhis representatives, the necessity of the public contribution, of free consent,of following the employment [of the contributions], and of determining thequotient [i.e., the share], the assessment, the recovering [i.e., the collecting]and the duration.
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Article XV - The society has the right of requesting [an] account[ing] fromany public agent of its [i.e., the society's] administration.
Article XVI - Any society in which the guarantee of rights is not assured,nor the separation of powers determined, has not a bit of Constitution.
Article XVII - Property being an inviolable and sacred right, no one can bedeprived of private usage, if it is not when the public necessity, legallynoted, evidently requires it, and under the condition of a just and prior indemnity[i.e., compensation].
Georg Jellinek's Comparison of the American states and French Declarationsof Rights
Source: The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of Citizens: A Contribution to Modern Constitutional History by Georg Jellinek, Dr. Phil. et Jur. , Professor of Law in the University of Heidelberg. Authorized translation from the German by Max Farrand, Ph.D. Revised by the Author (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1901). Chapter V. Comparison with American Bills of Rights.
Copyright: The text is in the public domain.
Fair Use: This material is put online to further the educational goals of Liberty Fund, Inc. Unless otherwise stated in the Copyright Information section above, this material may be used freely for educational and academic purposes. It may not be used in any way for profit.
Georg Jellinek compares, section by section, the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen with similar sections from American state Bills of Rights, in order to show how the latter influenced the former.
CHAPTERV. COMPARISON OF THE FRENCH AND AMERICAN DECLARATIONS.
DÉCLARATION DES DROITS DE L'HOMME ET DU CITOYEN.
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ART. I. Les homes naissent et demeurent libres et égaux en droits. Les distinctions sociales ne peuvent être fondées que sur l'utilité commune.
2. Le but de toute association politique est la conservation des droits naturels et imprescriptibles de l'homme. Ces droits sont la liberté, la propriété, la s?reté et la résistance à l'oppression.
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VIRGINIA, I. That all men are by nature equally free and independent, and have certain inherent rights, of which, when they enter into a state of society, they cannot, by any compact, deprive or divest their posterity; namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety.
VIRGINIA, IV. That no man, or set of men, are entitled to exclusive or separate emoluments or privileges from the community, but in consideration of public services.
MASSACHUSETTS, Preamble to the Constitution. The end of the institution, maintenance, and administration of government is to secure the existence of the bodypolitic, to protect it, and to furnish the individuals who compose it with the power of enjoying, in safety and tranquillity, their natural rights and the blessings of life.
MARYLAND, IV. The doctrine of nonresistance, against arbitrary power and oppression, is absurd, slavish and destructive of the good and happiness of mankind.
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3. Le principe de toute souveraineté réside essentiellement dans la nation. Nul corps, nul individu ne peut exercer d'autorité qui n'en émane expréssement. | VIRGINIA, II. That all power is vested in, and consequently derived from, the people; that magistrates are their trustees and servants, and at all times amenable to them. |
4. La liberté consiste à pouvoir faire tout ce qui ne nuit pas à autrui; aussi l'exercise des droits naturels de chaque homme n'a de bornes que celles qui assurent aux autres membres de la société la jouissance de ces mêmes droits. Ces bornes ne peuvent étre déterminées que par la loi. |
MASSACHUSETTS, Preamble. The bodypolitic is formed by a voluntary association of individuals; it is a social compact by which the whole people covenants with each citizen and each citizen with the whole people that all shall be governed by certain laws for the common good.
MASSACHUSETTS, X. Each individual of the society has a right to be protected by it in the enjoyment of his life, liberty, and property, according to standing laws.
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5. La loi n'a le droit de défendre que les actions nuisibles à la société. Tout ce qui n'est pas défendu par la loi ne peut être empêtre contraint à faire ce qu'elle n'ordonne pas. |
MASSACHUSETTS, XI. Every subject of the commonwealth ought to find a certain remedy, by having recourse to the laws, for all injuries or wrongs which he may receive in his person, property, or character.
NORTH CAROLINA XIII. That every freeman, restrained of his liberty, is entitled to a remedy, to inquire into the lawfulness thereof, and to remove the same, if unlawful; and that such remedy ought not to be denied or delayed.
VIRGINIA, VII. That all power of suspending laws, or the execution of laws, by any authority, without consent of the representatives of the people, is injurious to their rights, and ought not to be exercised.1
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6. La loi est l'expression de la volonté générale. Tous les citoyens ont le droit de concourir personnellement ou par leurs représentants à sa formation. Elle doit être la même pour tous, soit qu'elle protège, soit qu'elle punisse. Tous les citoyens étant égaux à ses yeux, sont également admissibles à toutes dignités, places et emplois publics, selon leur capacité, et sans autre distinction que celle de leurs vertus et leurs talents. |
MARYLAND, V. That the right in the people to participate in the Legislature, is the best security of liberty, and the foundation of all free government.
MASSACHUSETTS, IX. All elections ought to be free;2 and all the inhabitants of this commonwealth, having such qualifications as they shall establish by their frame of government, have an equal right to elect officers, and to be elected, for public employments.
NEW HAMPSHIRE, XII. Nor are the inhabitants of this State controllable by any other laws than those to which they or their representative body have given their consent.
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7. Nul homme ne peut être accusé, arrêté, ni détenu que dans les cas déterminés par la loi et selon les formes qu'elle a prescrites. Ceux qui sollicitent, expédient, exécutent ou font exécuter des ordres arbitraires, doivent être punis; mais tout citoyen appelé ou saisi en vertu de la loi doit obéir à l'instant; il se rend coupable par sa résistance. |
MASSACHUSETTS, XII. No subject shall be held to answer for any crimes or no offence until the same is fully and plainly, substantially and formally, described to him; or be compelled to accuse, or furnish evidence against himself; and every subject shall have a right to produce all proofs that may be favorable to him; to meet the witnesses against him face to face, and to be fully heard in his defence by himself, or his counsel at his election. And no subject shall be arrested, imprisoned, despoiled, or deprived of his property, immunities, or privileges, put out of the protection of the law, exiled or deprived of his life, liberty, or estate, but by the judgment of his peers, or the law of the land.3
VIRGINIA, X. That general warrants, whereby an officer or messenger may be commanded to search suspected places without evidence of a fact committed, or to seize any person or persons not named, or whose offence is not particularly described and supported by evidence, are grievous and oppressive, and ought not to be granted.
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8. La loi ne doit établir que des peines strictement nécessaires et nul ne peut être puni qu'en vertu d'une loi établie et promulguée antérieurement au délit et légalement appliquée. |
NEW HAMPSHIRE, XVIII. All penalties ought to be proportioned to the nature of the offence.4
MARYLAND, XIV. That sanguinary laws ought to be avoided, as far as is consistent with the safety of the State; and no law, to inflict cruel and unusual pains and penalties, ought to be made in any case, or at any time hereafter.5
MARYLAND, XV. That retrospective laws, punishing facts committed before the existence of such laws, and by them only declared criminal, are oppressive, unjust, and incompatible with liberty; wherefore no ex post facto law ought to be made.
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9. Tout homme étant présumé innocent jusqu' à ce qu'il ait été déclaré coupable, s'il est jugé indispensable de l'arrêter, toute rigueur qui ne serait pas nécessaire pour s'assurer de sa personne doit être sévèrement réprimée par la loi. |
Cf. above, Massachusetts, XII; further
MASSACHUSETTS, XIV. Every subject has a right to be secure from all unreasonable searches and seizures of his person, his houses, his papers, and all his possessions.
MASSACHUSETTS, XXVI. No magistrate or court of law shall demand excessive bail or sureties, impose excessive fines6. . .
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10. Nul doit étre inquiété pour ses opinions, même religieuses, pourvu que leur manifestation ne trouble pas l'ordre public établi par la loi. | NEW HAMPSHIRE, V. Every individual has a natural and unalienable right to worship GOD according to the dictates of his own conscience, and reason; and no subject shall be hurt, molested or restrained in his person, liberty or estate for worshipping GOD, in the manner and season most agreeable to the dictates of his own conscience, or for his religious profession, sentiments or persuasion; provided he doth not disturb the public peace, or disturb others, in their religious worship. |
11. La libre communication des pensées et des opinions est un des droits les plus précieux de l'homme; tout citoyen peut donc parler, écrire, imprimer librement sauf à répondre de l'abus de cette liberté dans les cas determinés par la loi. |
VIRGINIA, XII. That the freedom of the press is one of the great bulwarks of liberty, and can never be restrained but by despotic governments.
PENNSYLVANIA, XII. That the people have a right to freedom of speech, and of writing, and publishing their sentiments
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12. La garantie des droits de l'homme et du citoyen nécessité une force publique. Cette force est donc instituée pour l'avantage de tous, et non pour l'utilité particulière de ceux auxquels elle est confiée. | PENNSYLVANIA, V. That government is, or ought to be, instituted for the common benefit, protection and security of the people, nation or community; and not for the particular emolument or advantage of any single man, family, or sett of men, who are a part only of that community. |
13. Pour l'entretien de la force publique et pour les dépenses d'administration, une contribution commune est indispensable; elle doit ére également répartie entre tous les citoyens en raison de leurs facultés. | MASSACHUSETTS, X. Each individual of the society has a right to be protected by it in the enjoyment of his life, liberty, and property, according to standing laws. He is obliged, consequently, to contribute his share to the expense of this protection; to give his personal service, or an equivalent, when necessary. |
14. Tous les citoyens ont le droit de constater, par eux mêmes ou par leur représentants, la nécessité de la contribution publique, de la consentir librement, d' en suivre l'emploi, et d'en déterminer la qualité, l'assiette, le recouvrement et la durée. | MASSACHUSETTS, XXIII. No subsidy, charge, tax, impost, or duties, ought to be established, fixed, laid or levied, under any pretext whatsoever, without the consent of the people, or their representatives in the legislature. |
15. La société a le droit de demander compte à tout agent public de son administration. |
See above, VIRGINIA, II; further
MASSACHUSETTS V. All power residing originally in the people, and being derived from them, the several magistrates and officers of government vested with authority, whether legislative, executive, or judicial, are the substitutes and agents, and are at all times accountable to them.
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16. Toute société, dans laquelle la garantie des droits n'est pas assurée, ni la séparation des pouvoirs déterminée, n'a point de constitution. |
NEW HAMPSHIRE, III. When men enter into a state of society, they surrender up some of their natural rights to that society, in order to insure the protection of others; and without such an equivalent, the surrender is void.
MASSACHUSETTS, XXX. In the government of this commonwealth, the legislative department shall never exercise the executive and judicial powers, or either of them; the executive shall never exercise the legislative and judicial powers, or either of them; the judicial shall never exercise the legislative and executive powers, or either of them; to the end it may be a government of laws, and not of men.
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17. La propriété étant un droit inviolable et sacré, nul ne peut en être privé, si ce n'est lors que la nécessité publique, légalement constatée, l'exige évidemment, et sous la condition d'une juste et préalable indemnité. |
MASSACHUSETTS, X. . . . But no part of the property of any individual can, with justice, be taken from him, or applied to public uses, without his own consent, or that of the representative body of the people. . . And whenever the public exigencies require that the property of any individual should be appropriated to public uses, he shall receive a reasonable compensation therefor.
VERMONT, II. That private property ought to be subservient to public uses, when necessity requires it; nevertheless, whenever any particular man's property is taken for the use of the public, the owner ought to receive an equivalent in money.
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Endnotes
[1.]Cf. English Bill of Rights, I.
[2.]English Bill of Rights, 8
[3.]Magna Charta, 39.
[4.]Magna Charta, 20.
[5.]English Bill of Rights, 10.
[6.]English Bill of Rights, 10.
Last modified April 13, 2016
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (Template:Lang-fr) is a fundamental document of the French Revolution and in the history of human rights, defining the individual and collective rights of all the estates of the realm as universal. Influenced by the doctrine of 'natural right', the rights of man are held to be universal: valid at all times and in every place, pertaining to human nature itself.
TextEdit
The last article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen was adopted on 26 August 1789,[1] by the National Constituent Assembly (Assemblée nationale constituante), during the period of the French Revolution, as the first step toward writing a constitution for France. Inspired by the Enlightenment, the original version of the Declaration was discussed by the representatives on the basis of a 24 article draft proposed by the sixth bureau,[2][3] led by Jérôme Champion de Cicé. The draft was later modified during the debates. A second and lengthier declaration, known as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1793 was later adopted.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
Articles:
- Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good.
- The aim of all political association is the preservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.
- The principle of all sovereignty resides essentially in the nation. No body nor individual may exercise any authority which does not proceed directly from the nation.
- Liberty consists in the freedom to do everything which injures no one else; hence the exercise of the natural rights of each man has no limits except those which assure to the other members of the society the enjoyment of the same rights. These limits can only be determined by law.
- Law can only prohibit such actions as are hurtful to society. Nothing may be prevented which is not forbidden by law, and no one may be forced to do anything not provided for by law.
- Law is the expression of the general will. Every citizen has a right to participate personally, or through his representative, in its foundation. It must be the same for all, whether it protects or punishes. All citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, are equally eligible to all dignities and to all public positions and occupations, according to their abilities, and without distinction except that of their virtues and talents.
- No person shall be accused, arrested, or imprisoned except in the cases and according to the forms prescribed by law. Any one soliciting, transmitting, executing, or causing to be executed, any arbitrary order, shall be punished. But any citizen summoned or arrested in virtue of the law shall submit without delay, as resistance constitutes an offense.
- The law shall provide for such punishments only as are strictly and obviously necessary, and no one shall suffer punishment except it be legally inflicted in virtue of a law passed and promulgated before the commission of the offense.
- As all persons are held innocent until they shall have been declared guilty, if arrest shall be deemed indispensable, all harshness not essential to the securing of the prisoner's person shall be severely repressed by law.
- No one shall be disquieted on account of his opinions, including his religious views, provided their manifestation does not disturb the public order established by law.
- The free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious of the rights of man. Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by law.
- The security of the rights of man and of the citizen requires public military forces. These forces are, therefore, established for the good of all and not for the personal advantage of those to whom they shall be entrusted.
- A general tax is indispensable for the maintenance of the public force and for the expenses of administration; it ought to be equally apportioned among all citizens according to their means.[4]
- All the citizens have a right to decide, either personally or by their representatives, as to the necessity of the public contribution; to grant this freely; to know to what uses it is put; and to fix the proportion, the mode of assessment and of collection and the duration of the taxes.
- Society has the right to require of every public agent an account of his administration.
- A society in which the observance of the law is not assured, nor the separation of powers defined, has no constitution at all.
- Property being an inviolable and sacred right, no one can be deprived of it, unless explicitly demanded by public necessity, legally constituted, demands it, and under the condition of a just and prior indemnity.
Philosophic and theoretical contextEdit
The concepts in the Declaration come from the philosophical and political principles of the Age of Enlightenment, such as individualism, the social contract as theorized by the Swiss philosopher Rousseau, and the separation of powers espoused by the Baron de Montesquieu. As can be seen in the texts, the French declaration is heavily influenced by the political philosophy of the Enlightenment, and by Enlightenment principles of human rights, some of which it shares with the U.S. Declaration of Independence which preceded it (4 July 1776). Thomas Jefferson, primary author of the U.S. Declaration of Independence, was at the time in France as a U.S. diplomat,[5] and was in correspondence with members of the French National Constituent Assembly. James Madison's proposal for a U.S. Bill of Rights was adopted by the U.S. House of Representatives on 21 August 1789.,[6][7] that is 5 days before the French declaration. Considering the speed at which information crossed the Atlantic Ocean in the 18th century, it can be assumed that the French declaration was not directly inspired by its US counterpart.
The declaration is in the spirit of what has come to be called natural law, which does not base itself on religious doctrine or authority.[8]
The declaration defines a single set of individual and collective rights for all men. Influenced by the doctrine of natural rights, these rights are held to be universal and valid in all times and places. For example, 'Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good.'[9] They have certain natural rights to property, to liberty and to life. According to this theory the role of government is to recognize and secure these rights. Furthermore government should be carried on by elected representatives.[8]
At the time of writing, the rights contained in the declaration were only awarded to men. Furthermore, the declaration was a statement of vision rather than reality. The declaration was not deeply rooted in either the practice of the West or even France at the time. The declaration emerged in the late 18th Century out of war and revolution. It encountered opposition as democracy and individual rights were frequently regarded as synonymous with anarchy and subversion. The declaration embodies ideals and aspirations towards which France pledged to struggle in the future.[10]
SubstanceEdit
Template:Expand sectionThe Declaration opens by affirming 'the natural and imprescriptible rights of man' to 'liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression'. It called for the destruction of aristocratic privileges by proclaiming an end to exemptions from taxation, freedom and equal rights for all human beings (referred to as 'Men'), and access to public office based on talent. The monarchy was restricted, and all citizens were to have the right to take part in the legislative process. Freedom of speech and press were declared, and arbitrary arrests outlawed.[11]
The Declaration also asserted the principles of popular sovereignty, in contrast to the divine right of kings that characterized the French monarchy, and social equality among citizens, 'All the citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, are equally admissible to all public dignities, places, and employments, according to their capacity and without distinction other than that of their virtues and of their talents,' eliminating the special rights of the nobility and clergy.
Active vs. Passive CitizenshipEdit
While the French Revolution provided rights to a larger portion of the population, there remained a distinction between those who obtained the political rights in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen and those who did not. Those who were deemed to hold these political rights were called active citizens. Active citizenship was granted to men who were French, at least 25 years old, paid taxes equal to three days work, and could not be defined as servants (Thouret).[12] This meant that at the time of the Declaration only white, male, property owners held these rights.[13] The deputies in the National Assembly (French Revolution) believed that only those who held tangible interests in the nation could make informed political decisions.[14] This distinction directly affects articles 6, 12, 14, and 15 of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen as each of these rights is related to the right to vote and to participate actively in the government. With the decree of 29 October 1789, the term active citizen became embedded in French politics.[15]
The concept of passive citizens was created to encompass those populations that had been excluded from political rights in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Because of the requirements set down for active citizens, the vote was granted to approximately 4.3 million Frenchmen.[15] out of a population of around 29 million.[16] These omitted groups included women, slaves, children, and foreigners. As these measures were voted upon by the General Assembly, they limited the rights of certain groups of citizens while implementing the democratic process of the new French Republic (1792–1804).[14] This legislation, passed in 1789, was amended by the creators of the Constitution of 1795 in order to eliminate the label of active citizen.[17] The power to vote was then, however, to be granted solely to substantial property owners.[17]
Tensions arose between active and passive citizens throughout the Revolution. Fallout 4 mods cross jetpack. This happened when passive citizens started to call for more rights, or when they openly refused to listen to the ideals set forth by active citizens. This cartoon clearly demonstrates the difference that existed between the active and passive citizens along with the tensions associated with such differences.[18] In the cartoon, a passive citizen is holding a spade and a wealthy landowning active citizen is ordering the passive citizens to go to work. The act appears condescending to the passive citizen and it revisits the reasons why the French Revolution began in the first place.
Women, in particular, were strong passive citizens who played a significant role in the Revolution. Olympe de Gouges penned her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen in 1791 and drew attention to the need for gender equality.[19] By supporting the ideals of The French Revolution and wishing to expand them to women, she represented herself as a revolutionary citizen. Madame Roland also established herself as an influential figure throughout the Revolution. She saw women of The French Revolution as holding three roles; “inciting revolutionary action, formulating policy, and informing others of revolutionary events.”[20] By working with men, as opposed to working separate from men, she may have been able to further the fight of revolutionary women. As players in The French Revolution, women occupied a significant role in the civic sphere by forming social movements and participating in popular clubs, allowing them societal influence, despite their lack of direct political influence.[21]
Women's rightsEdit
The Declaration recognized many rights as belonging to citizens (who could only be male). This was despite the fact that after The March on Versailles on 5 October 1789, women presented the Women's Petition to the National Assembly in which they proposed a decree giving women equality.Template:Citation needed In 1790 Nicolas de Condorcet and Etta Palm d'Aelders unsuccessfully called on the National Assembly to extend civil and political rights to women.[22] Condorcet declared that “and he who votes against the right of another, whatever the religion, color, or sex of that other, has henceforth abjured his own”.[23] The French Revolution did not lead to a recognition of women’s rights and this prompted Olympe de Gouges to publish the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen in September 1791.[24]
The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen is modelled on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and is ironic in formulation and exposes the failure of the French Revolution, which had been devoted to equality. It states that:
Declaration Of Rights Of Men And Citizens
“This revolution will only take effect when all women become fully aware of their deplorable condition, and of the rights they have lost in society”.The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen follows the seventeen articles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen point for point and has been described by Camille Naish as “almost a parody.. of the original document”. The first article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen proclaims that:
“Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be based only on common utility.”The first article of Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen replied:
“Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights. Social distinctions may only be based on common utility”.De Gouges also draws attention to the fact that under French law women were fully punishable, yet denied equal rights, declaring “Women have the right to mount the scaffold, they must also have the right to mount the speaker’s rostrum”.[25]
SlaveryEdit
The declaration did not revoke the institution of slavery, as lobbied for by Jacques-Pierre Brissot's Les Amis des Noirs and defended by the group of colonial planters called the Club Massiac because they met at the Hôtel Massiac.[26] Despite the lack of explicit mention of slavery in the Declaration, slave uprisings in Saint-Domingue that would later be known as the beginning of the Haitian Revolution took inspiration from its words, as discussed in C. L. R. James' history of the Haitian Revolution, The Black Jacobins.Template:Citation neededDeplorable conditions for the thousands of slaves in Saint-Domingue, the most profitable slave colony in the world, also led to the uprisings which would be known as the first successful slave revolt in the New World. Slavery in the French colonies was abolished by the Convention dominated by the Jacobins in 1794. However, Napoleon reinstated it in 1802. The colony of Saint-Domingue declared its independence in 1804.
LegacyEdit
The declaration has also influenced and inspired rights-based liberal democracy throughout the world. It was translated as soon as 1793–94 by Colombian Antonio Nariño, who published it despite the Inquisition and was sentenced to be imprisoned for ten years for doing so. In 2003, the document was listed on UNESCO's Memory of the World register.
Constitution of the French Fifth RepublicEdit
- Main article: Constitution of the French Fifth Republic
According to the preamble of the Constitution of the French Fifth Republic (adopted on 4 October 1958, and the current constitution), the principles set forth in the Declaration have constitutional value. Many laws and regulations have been canceled because they did not comply with those principles as interpreted by the Conseil Constitutionnel ('Constitutional Council of France') or by the Conseil d'État ('Council of State').
- Taxation legislation or practices that seem to make some unwarranted difference between citizens are struck down as unconstitutional.
- Suggestions of positive discrimination on ethnic grounds are rejected because they infringe on the principle of equality, since they would establish categories of people that would, by birth, enjoy greater rights.
Conspiracy theoriesEdit
The Eye of Providence represents the sun 'shining' on the laws and fueled several conspiracy theories, for instance that the French Revolution was caused by occults groups.[27][28]Template:Better source
Other early declarations of rightsEdit
- Poland: Henrician Articles and Pacta Conventa (1573)
- England: Magna Carta (1215), Bill of Rights of 1689
- Scotland: Claim of Right (1689)
- United States: United States Bill of Rights (1791)
See alsoEdit
- Natural law and natural rights
ReferencesEdit
- Georg Jellinek, Die Erklärung der Menschen- und Bürgerrechte, Duncker&Humblot, Berlin, 1895.
- Vincent Marcaggi, Les origines de la déclaration des droits de l'homme de 1789, Fontenmoing, Paris, 1912.
- Giorgio Del Vecchio, La déclaration des droits de l’homme et du citoyen dans la Révolution française: contributions à l’histoire de la civilisation européenne, Librairie générale de droit et de jurisprudence, Paris,1968.
- Stéphane Rials, ed, La déclaration des droits de l’homme et du citoyen, Hachette, Paris, 1988, ISBN 2-01-014671-9.
- Claude-Albert Colliard, La déclaration des droits de l’homme et du citoyen de 1789, La doumentation française, Paris, 1990, ISBN 2-11-002329-5.
- Gérard Conac, Marc Debene, Gérard Teboul, eds, La Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen de 1789; histoire, analyse et commentaires, Economica, Paris, 1993, ISBN 978-2-7178-2483-4.
- William Doyle, The Oxford History of the French Revolution, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.
- Susan Dalton, Gender and the Shifting Ground of Revolutionary Politics: The Case of Madame Roland, «Canadian Journal of History», 36, no. 2 (2001): 259-283.
- Realino Marra, La giustizia penale nei princìpi del 1789, «Materiali per una storia della cultura giuridica», XXXI-2, 2001, 353-64.
- Jack Censer and Lynn Hunt, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution, University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001.
- Darline Levy and Harriet Applewhite, A Political Revolution for Women? The Case of Paris, In The French Revolution: conflicting interpretations. 5th ed. Malabar, Fla.: Krieger Pub. Co., 2002. 317-346.
- Jeremy Popkin, A History of Modern France, Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc., 2006.
- 'Active Citizen/Passive Citizen, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution, http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/75/ (accessed October 30, 2011).
- Jacques–Guillaume Thouret, Report on the Basis of Political Eligibility' (29 September 1789), Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution, accessed October 26, 2011 http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/282/.
- Olympe de Gouges, Declaration of the Rights of Woman, 1791, College of Staten Island Library. http://www.library.csi.cuny.edu/dept/americanstudies/lavender/decwom2.html (accessed October 30, 2011).
- “Social Causes of the Revolution” Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution, accessed October 26, 2011, http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/chap1a.html.
Further readingEdit
- Gary Kates and Olwen Hufton. 'In Search of Counter-Revolutionary Women.' The French Revolution: Recent Debates and New Controversies. London: Routledge, 1998.
- Robin Blackburn, “Haiti, Slavery, and the Age of the Democratic Revolution” The William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, Vol. 63, No. 4, Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, October 2006. 643-674.
- Immanuel Wallerstein. 2003. Citizens all? Citizens some! The making of the citizen. Comparative Studies in Society and History 45, (4): 650, [29] (accessed November 3, 2011).
- Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen translated into Austrian übertragen by the deaf actor and translator Horst Dittrich, edited by ARBOS – Company for Music and Theatre, ISBN: 978-3-9503173-2-9, ARBOS-Edition © & ® 2012[30]
NotesEdit
- ↑Some sources say 27 August because the debate was not officially closed.
- ↑The original draft is an annex to the report of the August 12th report (Archives parlementaires, 1,sup>e</sup> série, tome VIII, débats du 12 août 1789, p.431).
- ↑Archives parlementaires, 1e série, tome VIII, débats du 19 août 1789, p.459.
- ↑'Declaration'. http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/declaration.html. Retrieved August 10, 2012.
- ↑http://sc94.ameslab.gov/TOUR/tjefferson.html
- ↑Adamson, Barry (2008). Freedom of Religion, the First Amendment, and the Supreme Court: How the Court Flunked History. Pelican Publishing. p. 93. http://books.google.com/books?id=Tgw-rCrNYacC&pg=PA93.
- ↑Template:Citation
- ↑ 8.08.1Merryman, John Henry; Rogelip Perez-Perdomo (2007). The civil law tradition: an introduction to the legal system of Europe and Latin America. Stanford University Press. pp. 16. http://books.google.com/books?id=6OJf9CbgKTkC&pg=PA16&dq=Declaration+of+the+Rights+of+Man+and+of+the+Citizen&lr=#v=onepage&q=Declaration%20of%20the%20Rights%20of%20Man%20and%20of%20the%20Citizen&f=false.
- ↑First Article, Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
- ↑Lauren, Paul Gordon (2003). The evolution of international human rights: visions seen. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 32. http://books.google.com/books?id=gHRhWgbWyzMC&dq=Declaration+of+the+Rights+of+Man+and+of+the+Citizen&lr=&source=gbs_navlinks_s.
- ↑Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2008). Western Civilization: 1300 to 1815. Wadsworth Publishing. pp. 580. ISBN978-0-495-50289-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=0QKxEJF-zQQC&dq=Declaration+of+the+Rights+of+Man+and+of+the+Citizen&lr=&source=gbs_navlinks_s.
- ↑Thouret 1789, http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/282/
- ↑Censer and Hunt 2001, p. 55.
- ↑ 14.014.1Popkin 2006, p. 46.
- ↑ 15.015.1Doyle 1989, p. 124.
- ↑“Social Causes of the Revolution,” http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/chap1a.html
- ↑ 17.017.1Doyle 1989, p. 420.
- ↑“Active/Passive Citizen”, http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/75/.
- ↑De Gouges, 'Declaration of the Rights of Women,' 1791.
- ↑Dalton 2001, p. 1.
- ↑Levy and Applewhite 2002, pp. 319-320, 324.
- ↑Williams, Helen Maria; Neil Fraistat, Susan Sniader Lanser, David Brookshire (2001). Letters written in France. Broadview Press Ltd. p. 246. ISBN978-1-55111-255-8. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Ruwz82RicgC&dq=Declaration+of+the+Rights+of+Woman+and+the+Female+Citizen&source=gbs_navlinks_s.
- ↑Lauren, Paul Gordon (2003). The evolution of international human rights. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 18–20. ISBN978-0-8122-1854-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=gHRhWgbWyzMC&dq=Declaration+of+the+Rights+of+Man+and+of+the+Citizen&source=gbs_navlinks_s.
- ↑Naish, Camille (1991). Death comes to the maiden: Sex and Execution, 1431–1933. Routledge. p. 136. ISBN978-0-415-05585-7. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OHYOAAAAQAAJ&dq=Declaration+of+the+Rights+of+Woman+and+the+Female+Citizen&source=gbs_navlinks_s.
- ↑Naish, Camille (1991). Death comes to the maiden: Sex and Execution, 1431–1933. Routledge. p. 137. ISBN978-0-415-05585-7. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OHYOAAAAQAAJ&dq=Declaration+of+the+Rights+of+Woman+and+the+Female+Citizen&source=gbs_navlinks_s.
- ↑The club of reactionary colonial proprietors meeting since July 1789 were opposed to representation in the Assemblée of France's overseas dominions, for fear 'that this would expose delicate colonial issues to the hazards of debate in the Assembly,' as Robin Blackburn expressed it (Blackburn, The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery, 1776–1848 [1988:174f]); see also the speech of Jean-Baptiste Belley
- ↑Mounier, Jean Joseph, On the Influence Attributed to Philosophers, Free-Masons, and to the Illuminati on the Revolution of France, facsimile reproduction with an introduction by Theodore A. DiPadove. Delmar, New York, Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, 1974, p.69.
- ↑Knight, Peter (2003). Conspiracy theories in American history : an encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. pp. 226–227, 336–337. ISBN978-1-57607-812-9. http://books.google.fr/books?id=qMIDrggs8TsC&printsec=frontcover&hl=fr#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ↑http://search.proquest.com/docview/212669823?accountid=14608
- ↑http://vimeo.com/52676206
External linksEdit
- 'Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen de 1789' (in French). Conseil constitutionnel. http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/conseil-constitutionnel/francais/la-constitution/la-constitution-du-4-octobre-1958/declaration-des-droits-de-l-homme-et-du-citoyen-de-1789.5076.html. Retrieved 14 May 2012.
- 'Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen de 1789' (in French). Légifrance. http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/Droit-francais/Constitution/Declaration-des-Droits-de-l-Homme-et-du-Citoyen-de-1789. Retrieved 14 May 2012.
- 'Déclaration des droits de l'Homme et du citoyen de 1789' (in French). Ministère de la Justice et des Libertés : TEXTES & RÉFORMES. http://www.textes.justice.gouv.fr/textes-fondamentaux-10086/droits-de-lhomme-et-libertes-fondamentales-10087/declaration-des-droits-de-lhomme-et-du-citoyen-de-1789-10116.html. Retrieved 14 May 2012.
- 'Declaration of human and civic rights of 26 August 1789'. Conseil constitutionnel. http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/conseil-constitutionnel/root/bank_mm/anglais/cst2.pdf. Retrieved 14 May 2012.
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